Effects Of Homogenous Grouping Education Essay

The term homogenous refers to points or elements or units which are similar in nature and are in a group which basically means that they posses the same type of basic qualities or belongingss. The opposite word for the word homogenous is heterogenous. Therefore, when a group of points is referred to as homogeneous so it means that the individual points that make up the group have a figure of similarities while a group that has points that differ in all kinds of belongingss is referred to as heterogenous. These footings are non limited to points merely but can besides be used to depict a group of persons by sing similarities and differences in some traits or characteristics. When used in a acquisition environment, homogenous groups refer to an organized group of pupils possessing comparable instructional degrees placed together managing stuffs that are deemed fit to their specific degree, this is normally determined through a series of appraisals and the procedure of organizing such g roups is known as ‘homogeneous grouping. ‘ The exercising of homogenous grouping employs a theoretical account that by and large puts pupils into groups with respect to ability or accomplishment as the variables for doing a determination. At a higher degree of pupil larning the pattern is normally practiced in mathematics, in which instance pupils are taken through general, vocational, or college-preparatory classs in mathematics. A similar state of affairs can besides be experienced in schools that offer algebra at the 8th class particularly at the junior high school and center degrees ( Oakes, 1985 ; Slavin, 1990 ) . Tracking or grouping can besides be done to pupils at the simple school degree, even though the grouping at this phase is done by mensurating general ability or accomplishment and non on ability or accomplishment with respect to mathematics. A 2nd instance in point where homogenous grouping is done for pupils is the little groups in schoolrooms where bunchs are tagged on ability or accomplishment in that specif ic schoolroom. This pattern has been customary for reading direction more normally at the simple school degree for a long clip. The same organisation is used by instructors for mathematics direction. The placing of pupils into high, medium, and low groups for mathematics direction is non much practised at the center, junior, or high school degree where there is a inclination for pupils to make less work when placed in little groups ( Slavin, 1990 ) . The outgrowth of such patterns was brought approximately by the prevailing belief that the difference in kids ‘s rational is so great that there is a demand to learn pupils with different ability or accomplishment degrees in a separate category or group ( Oakes, 1986 ) , yet many concerns have come up with respect to the long-run consequence that practising such groupings may do. Grouping of pupils can either take the signifier of ‘ability grouping ‘ or ‘tracking ‘ with a distinguishable difference bing between the two footings, nevertheless a batch of arguments have been raised in line with these footings. The significance of these footings have been observed to change from one school to another, in this instance ability grouping is defined as a state of affairs where pupils are organized into groups in categories in reading direction while tracking is described as the placing pupils into groups between categories, giving academic classs in topics that reveal differences in the anterior acquisition or ability of the pupils. Tracking specifically has generated vesicating argument with critics bear downing that it non merely fails to help any pupil, but that it besides leads hapless and minority pupils into low paths and dooms a immense figure of pupils to a hapless instruction. It does non nevertheless lack guardians who have besides stood house in reasoning that it pupils with high ability pine away in categories with assorted ability. Conversely, some instructors are in favor of ability grouping proposing that most pupils get disappointed when the whole category does non hold on a new thought at the same clip in a heterogenous grouping. The instructors argue that the low-end pupils pull down the high-end pupils, instead than the opposite taking topographic point. The gait of the category goes down and it becomes necessary for a instructor to fix dual lesson programs for every period, one for the high-end pupils and another for the low-end pupils. At some point one instructor acknowledged the fact that ability grouping could be good in certain countries such as mathematics but warned that it should non be practised all twenty-four hours in all academic countries. So as the argument continues, a common land on tracking and ability grouping is difficult to happen, possibly the most general decision between instructors managing this issue is that ability grouping is good in some instances, but non in others, and that it is necessary to be flexible so that trailing of pupils is non done with no clear capableness of traveling from group to group. Though ability grouping is widely employed by schools across the state, it is a really controversial topic. The contention of ability grouping roots from the scarceness of grounds of how pupils in higher acquisition learn best. Do they larn best in homogenous groups? Can pupils ‘ educational demands be best served in groups of assorted abilities? These are the issues that need to be explored profoundly in the recent surveies. There are a figure of definitions that are of import and need to be clarified. These definitions pertain to structural dimensions of ability grouping or tracking pattern. These facets are electivity, selectivity, inclusiveness and range. Electivity is the extent to which pupils choose or are assigned to track places. Students and their parents are urged by pedagogues to do the â€Å" right † pick harmonizing to their capacities. Curiously, Gamoran showed that the more elected a system, the higher were its pupils ‘ accomplishment degrees ( Gamoran, 1990 ) . Selectivity is the extent of homogeneousness within paths. It is the sum of homogeneousness pedagogues intend to make by spliting pupils into groups harmonizing to features for larning. The more selective a system is, the more the organisation of its pupils does non stand for the composing of its whole pupil organic structure and the more between-class differences are accentuated ( Gamoran, 1990 ) . Inclusiveness is the handiness of options for subsequent educational chances ( Gamoran, 1990 ) . In other words, does the direction a pupil receives prepare him or her for farther acquisition of cognition down the route, or does it cut the pupil off from other options. Finally, range is the comprehensiveness and flexibleness of a tracking assignment ; the extent to which pupils are located in the same path across their topics ( Gamoran, 1990 ) .Effectss of ability groupingAbility grouping has a figure of effects on that have an impact on pupil public presentation and they can be categorised as accomplishment, self-concept, anticipations and attitudes, socio-economic care, and chances for acquisition.AccomplishmentIn analyzing the first issue, which is accomplishment, the first inquiry to be answered is what is achievement and how is it measured? Achievement can be defined as the successful attainment of accomplishments. There a assorted ways in which accomplishment can be measured. M ost normally used in the surveies and are considered here are achievement trials and/or classs on study cards. Both measurings allow for a comparing of accomplishments among pupils. Reuman ‘s 1989 survey tried to reply the inquiry of whether or non societal comparings mediate the relation between ability grouping and pupils ‘ accomplishment anticipations in mathematics. While his survey chiefly included information on pupil outlooks of their accomplishment, consequences refering existent accomplishment were besides stated. Mathematicss accomplishment was measured for sixth-graders from a suburban public school territory in South-eastern Michigan utilizing both achievement trial tonss and describe card classs. His findings pertained to within-class and between-class ability grouping. He found that within-class grouping raised high-achievers ‘ mathematics classs. This may be explained by the fact that in a heterogenous schoolroom utilizing within-class grouping, pupi ls of changing abilities were being compared to each other. In within-class grouping the high-achievers were non in competition with all high-achieving pupils. Their classs were being compared with classs of mean and low-achieving pupils and would hence be higher. Conversely, low-achievers ‘ classs would e lower. The antonym was true for between category ability groupings. Reuman found that high high-achievers received lower classs in between-class grouping and the low-achievers received higher classs when compared to within-class grouping. In between-class grouping the high winners are no longer at the top of their category nor are the low winners at the underside. They are now being compared to pupils of similar abilities and their classs reflect that fact. Although Reuman ‘s survey did non concentrate on secondary pupils, it is practical to include this study since it gives a comparing and contrast of within-class and between-class ability grouping and there is a turn ing tendency towards traveling the sixth-grade into the in-between schools. Newfield and McElyea ( 1983 ) looked at sophomore and senior accomplishment differences in remedial and advanced mathematics and English categories as they compared to heterogenous categories. Heterogeneous categories that included low-achievers performed better on the written part of the English trial. Low-achieving seniors and sophomores in the heterogenous categories showed higher mathematics accomplishment. However, homogeneous-grouped categories of high-achieving sophomores and seniors in advanced categories exhibited greater accomplishment in both mathematics and English. No important differences were found beyond these consequences. Sing the effects of ability grouping on within-class accomplishment, Sorenson and Hallinan ‘s survey ( 1985 ) found that grouping additions inequality of accomplishment. Briefly, sing their survey at the difference in reading accomplishment between within-class grouped pupils and heterogenous schoolrooms for 4th through 7th graders from North California, their primary consequence refering accomplishment for within-class grouping was that high-ability groups attained a higher accomplishment than low-ability groups. These consequences were bases chiefly on informations from simple schools and may non straight use to secondary pupils, but this survey has been included in this research paper to add penetration to the topic of homogenous versus heterogenous effects on accomplishment. Testing the effects on the differences between mathematics accomplishments of within-class ability grouping, heterogenous and cooperative-learning grouped schoolrooms, Slavin and Karweit ( 1984 ) conducted two experiments. The first included 4th through 6th graders from integrated, urban, pathless schools in which the instructors were given appropriate preparation. The 2nd experiment included 3rd through 5th grade pupils from rural, largely white, tracked schools with no specific teacher preparation. The topics in these experiments were called untreated, control categories. The ground for carry oning both experiments was to be able to generalise the consequences of their survey to different school state of affairss and locations. In the heterogenous classes the instructors were trained to stress a high ratio of active instruction to seatwork. Mathematicss was taught in context of significance, non in isolation and there were frequent inquiries and feedback. In these categories, instr uctors taught at a rapid gait and strived to increase pupil clip on undertaking. In the within-class ability-grouped categories, instructors were trained to learn with the same constructs as described in the heterogenous categories, but were instructed to distinguish their gait and stuffs for the two groups. In the concerted acquisition categories, pupils worked in heterogenous larning squads of four or five members. They worked on individualised mathematics stuffs at their ain degrees and gait, and the squad members helped one another with any jobs. Slavin and Karweit ( 1984 ) found that the consequences were similar for both experiments. Concerted larning groups and within-class ability groups increased computational accomplishments significantly more than in heterogenous categories that had no grouping. There was a similarity in achievement effects when utilizing the concerted acquisition and within-class grouping interventions. This survey showed that grouping 3rd to sixth grade pupils in some manner is good to achievement when compared with no grouping at all. Again, this survey focused on simple school but did offer concerted acquisition as an option to the traditional usage of either homogenous or heterogenous schoolrooms. There are other research workers who besides conducted surveies on this subject whose findings are summarised as follows. A meta-analysis ( 1990 ) , conducted by Goldring, on the differences in accomplishment of talented pupils between homogenous and heterogenous categories included surveies crossing cla sss three through 12. Goldring found that the higher the grade degree, the more talented pupils benefited from specialized or homogenous categories. Teacher developing for talented plans straight affected pupil accomplishment. Students in particular categories, whose instructors had received particular preparation to learn talented pupils, achieved more than talented pupils in heterogenous categories as compared to pupils in talented categories whose instructors were non specially trained ( Goldring, 1990 ) . Apparently at odds consequences are found in the undermentioned three surveies. Kulik and Kulik ‘s ( 1987 ) meta-analysis included many older surveies dating back to the 1920 ‘s, and they excessively support Goldring ‘s findings that homogenous grouping of talented pupils increased their accomplishment. Looking beyond talented pupils in general, Slavin conducted a synthesis of 29 surveies from the old ages 1927-1986. He found that between-class ability groups, dominant in secondary schools had small or no consequence on accomplishment. He farther said that different signifiers of grouping were every bit uneffective ( Slavin, 1990 ) . Gamoran and Berends ( 1987 ) excessively studied the effects of ability grouping on secondary school and found rather the antonym. They found that ability grouping and tracking did so affect pupil accomplishment and that the differences between accomplishments may hold resulted from fluctuations in pupil academic experiences. Allan ‘s review ( 1991 ) of the incompatibilities between Kulik and Kulik ‘s ( 1987 ) and Slavin ‘s ( 1990 ) findings advises chariness in construing the reappraisals about ability grouping and the gifted. In both surveies, accomplishment was measured by the usage of standardised trial tonss. Tonss of talented pupils are normally high and approach a maximal possible mark. As they come closer to the upper limit, it is hard for these talented pupils, measured in this manner, to demo important academic betterment as they already represent the upper echelon of accomplishment. This effect may assist to account for the differences in consequences of surveies which examine gifted versus regularly-placed pupils. Another job with the usage of standardised trials was that they did non needfully measure what instructors were learning. Allan recommended the usage of teacher-made trials when comparing pupil advancement in homogenous versus heterogenous categories. Slavin include d surveies that used teacher-made trials, but at that place was a job with his choice procedure. He merely included surveies when the teacher-made trials were designed to measure aims taught in all categories. By and large, aims will change among the three ability groups of high, mean, and low and the lone trials that would run into Slavin ‘s standards would be those that tested for minimum aims. Again, this will non successfully show accomplishment additions for norm and high ability categories. Allan stressed that the most harmful facet of the homogenous versus heterogenous contention is the deceits of research workers ‘ findings, particularly Slavin ‘s. some authors may look at Slavin ‘s consequences and misinterpret them to back up their ain beliefs. An every bit detrimental illustration is that some school systems used Slavin ‘s findings to do determinations on gifted or particular instruction plans. In world, Slavin did non include either group in his survey. In scrutiny of accomplishment, non merely should the effects of ability grouping be considered but besides how schools construction their trailing patterns. Different types of tracking systems do hold different effects on pupil accomplishment. What makes a tracking pattern differ from school to school is the extent of accent a system places on selectivity, inclusiveness, range, and electivity. A trailing system which exhibited a high grade of selectivity or high degrees of homogeneousness, t he larger were the differences in accomplishment between each path.Self-conceptIn reexamining the surveies analyzing the effects of tracking on secondary pupils, it was found that self-concept is a really important variable. Self-concept can be defined as the self rating of a pupil ‘s abilities in comparing to his or her other schoolmates. Student self-concept depends on their comfort and adeptness with societal comparing procedures. Self-concept non merely reflects how pupils rate their abilities by societal comparing to other schoolmates, but it besides includes their self-esteem, the manner the feel about themselves. Ability grouping and trailing patterns have a strong consequence on self-concept as the degree or group a pupil is placed affects the variables with which he or she may estimate his or her ain public presentation and ability. For secondary pupils, their self-concept does associate to their group arrangement. In homogenous systems, high-ability pupils rate high degrees of self-concept, while the low-ability pupils exhibited lower degrees of self-concept ( Byrne, 1988 ; Reuman, 1983 ; Spenser & A ; Allen, 1988 ) . A survey following sophomores to their senior twelvemonth found that their self-concept remains changeless for academic paths ( high-ability pupils ) and regular paths ( average-ability pupils ) , but self-concept diminutions for the vocational-tracked pupil ( low-ability ) ( Vanfossen, Jones & A ; Spade, 1987 ) . In heterogenous categories of English and Social surveies, secondary pupils experience higher grades of ego construct and ego regard. Compared to the homogenous categories, instructors, who in this survey were learning to mixed-ability groups for the first clip, perceived elevated degrees of self-concept and self-esteem from their norm and lower pupils ( Poppish et Al, 1990 ) . Low tracked pupils in 11th and 12th class academic categories often compared their abilities to the pupils in high paths and the low-track pupils did see themselves as less capable ( Byrne, 1991 ; Reuman, 1983 ; Vanfossen et Al, 1987 ) . However, in general course of study categories, the low-tracked pupils used societal comparing processes less and placed less accent on academic accomplishments. In these categories, it was found that cognition was non every bit of import as popularity with equals ( Byrne, 1991 ) . Social comparing procedures are an of import go-between of the relationship between ability grouping and self-concept. In a survey of ninth-grade mathematics categories, within-class grouping for high and mean groups positively affects the self-evaluation for those pupils because of the manner they compare themselves to the ability of the other pupils in their category. The low-ability group demonstrated lower degrees of self-concept as they saw that their mathematics abil ities did non be the other groups in the schoolroom. The high-ability pupils compared themselves to pupils who were less mathematically capable and rated their ain abilities high ( Reuman, 1983 ) . In contrast, the self-concept for between-class sorted pupils related to the ability group in which the pupils were placed, i.e. high-ability pupils had high grades of self-concept, mean ability had mean grades of self-concept and low-ability pupils saw themselves as holding hapless mathematics abilities ( Reuman, 1983 ) . Reuman ‘s survey ( 1983 ) besides found that gender plays a function in pupils ‘ self-concept. Unlike male childs, misss are loath to compare themselves academically to others. For these pupils, who do non utilize societal comparing, their group degree strongly relates to their self-concept of their mathematics abilities. The effects of grouping on talented pupils ‘ self-concept showed no important differences between heterogenous and homogenous categories. On of the fabulous advocates for talented clauses is that specialised categories will profit talented pupils ‘ self-concept. However, talented pupils in homogenous, specialised categories do non exhibit higher grades of self-concept than talented pupils in heterogenous, mixed-ability categories ( Goldring, 1991 ) . When looking at the impact homogenous grouping versus heterogenous grouping has on pupils ‘ self-concept, it is of import to see the findings as they pertain to high, mean and low winners in heterogenous, between-class grouping and within-class grouping. It would be lead oning to generalise the consequences of heterogenous versus homogenous grouping for all pupils without looking at these finer dislocations.Anticipations and AttitudesAnticipations, as defined in this research paper, are the hopes and ideas pupils every bit good as instructors bring with them into a schoolroom or to a lesson on how they will win, and what they expect to larn. It is argued that tracking and ability grouping contribute to the inequality of instruction by changing pupil anticipations for successful public presentation and their attitudes towards school ( Oakes, 1985 ) . In her 1985 survey of 25 high schools and 25 junior high school, Oakes found that high-track pupils have higher outlooks for succe ssful public presentation, while low path pupils tend to experience more anomic from their school ‘s educational demands and farther educational chances. In the procedure of analyzing the organic structure of current research on ability grouping for its effects, it was found that much of the literature did non take into consideration anticipations or attitudes as variables. A survey of 9th and 10th class English and Social surveies classes showed that pupils of norm and high abilities had more positive anticipations for their heterogenous categories and their acquisition activities as compared to their homogenous opposite numbers. As the anticipations of the heterogenous pupils increased so did their motive to larn. In this survey, the heterogenous categories were tried for the first clip in this school, which had antecedently grouped homogeneously utilizing between-class groups ( Poppish et Al, 1990 ) . Teacher anticipations play a portion in the impact of ability grouping. In high school history categories, a survey found that instructors have lower anticipations for their low-ability pupils ( Muskin, 1990 ) . This type of instructor anticipation manifests itself in the manner instructors prepare for low-ability pupils. Granted they must take into consideration the lower abilities of these pupils, but these categories resulted blare higher rates of no n-instructional clip. Low-ability history categories were besides marked with a low or non-frequency of critical thought accomplishments, which are skills instructors seem to reserve for their high-ability pupils. One writer ( Muskin, 1990 ) suggests that critical thought accomplishments are taught at a higher frequence to the higher ability pupils because instructors expect high-ability pupils to be more prepared to manage that sort of cognition. Achievement anticipations were measured for 6th graders in mathematics in a 1983 survey. The achievement anticipations are a combination of self-concept of mathematics ability, outlook for high success in mathematics, and the perceptual experience of mathematics as an easy topic. Similar to self-concept, Reuman found that within-class grouping accentuated the sixth-grade high-achievers ‘ positive perceptual experiences and the low-achievers ‘ negative anticipations. This was because higher ability pupils tended to do downward comparings and the low-ability pupils made upward comparings ( Reuman, 1989 ) . This survey ‘s consequences for between-class grouping found that homogenous grouping both raised and lowered the accomplishment anticipations for both high and low-ability pupils. The classs received by the pupils in this survey corresponded to their anticipations. The high-achievers in within-class grouping received higher classs than their between-class opposite numbers. Merely as their accomplishment anticipations were low, the classs of the low-achievers received in the within-class grouping were lower than the low-ability pupils ‘ classs in the between-class grouping. This survey did non except the mean scholars. It found that there was no difference for the achievement anticipations of the average-ability pupils for their within or between-class grouping ( Reuman, 1989 ) . The pattern of ability grouping can impact pupils ‘ attitudes every bit good as their outlooks. In a 1983 survey on high and low achieving sophomores and seniors, it was found that the high winners ‘ attitude were more positive in the homogenous mathematics and English categories, while for the low-achievers, the heterogenous, the heterogenous categories had more positive impact on their attitudes. In comparing tantamount high-achieving sophomores and seniors from heterogenous categories with the homogenous, advanced categories, the survey learned that the high-achieving, homogenous pupils scored higher in positive attitudes toward capable, ego and school. For low-achieving sophomores, positive attitudes toward capable and ego were stronger for the mixed-ability pupils. The homogenous, remedial category exhibited increased marks of apprehension toward their topic. As for the seniors, there was no important difference between their attitudes for capable, ego and school for either assorted or homogenous categories. However, in the topic mathematics, the mixed-ability low-achieving seniors scored somewhat higher in their attitudes toward the topic ( Newfield & A ; McElyea, 1983 ) . From these surveies, it can be deduced that the higher the class, the less the pattern of ability grouping dramas in the consequence on anticipations and attitudes ( Newfield & A ; McElyea, 1983 ; Reuman, 1989 ) . Nevertheless, for in-between school and early high school, anticipations and attitudes are of import facets of ability groupings ‘ impact on pupil public presentation ( Gamoran, 1990, Reuman, 1989 ) . Their function with achievement reinforces the importance of sing anticipations and attitudes when analysing the impact of ability grouping.Socioeconomic position careSome research worker have found ( Jones, Vanfossen & A ; Spade, 1987 ; Goodland & A ; Oakes, 1988 ; Oakes, 1986 ; Vanfossen et Al, 1987 ) that pupils ‘ cultural backgrounds and/or economic position extremely influences their path arrangement. These research workers believed that while ability was an of import forecaster of arrangement, it entirely did non find which ability degree a pupil was placed d uring his or her high school instruction. Oakes ( 1986 ) traced the history of dividing pupils into groups destined for farther academic surveies and others for vocational enterprises, back to the bend of the century. In the early 1900 ‘s there was an inflow of immigrants and emancipated dorsums seeking instruction in the public schools. The leaders in instruction decided that the best instruction for these new pupils would be one which trained them for work, one that would assist them to do a life. Consequently, many research workers ( Jones et al, 1987 ; Goodland & A ; Oakes ; 1988 Oakes, 1986 ; Vanfossen et Al, 1987 ) today have found that non much has changed. Students of higher socioeconomic backgrounds are typical of the academically of high-tracked ability groups whereas minorities and the hapless are disproportionately placed in general or vocational paths. Tracking assignments are by and large based on standardised trial tonss and instructor or counselor judgement. Standardized-test prejudice ad instructor or counselor bias may account for the disproportional arrangement of hapless and minority pupils in low-tracked categories ( Oakes, 1985 ) . Jones et Al ( 1987 ) included in their research the arrangement of pupils into academic paths based on their socioeconomic backgrounds. They used statistics from 1908 informations base entitled the â€Å" High School and Beyond Study. † The sample of topics used in their survey included those seniors of 1982 who had remained in the same path they had been placed as sophomores in 1980. They found that the higher the sum of inclusiveness, the smaller the consequence that pupils ‘ socioeconomic backgrounds had on their location in an academic path. Additionally, the lesser the sum of inclusiveness, the smaller were the societal category differences among pupils in the vocational and ge neral paths. Oakes ( 1986 ) looked at the effects of puting pupils into academic versus vocational paths. She was concerned about her findings on the big per centum of minorities in the vocational plans and found that these plans taught low-level accomplishments for low-level occupations that are in danger of early obsolescence. In contrast, her research showed that a big per centum of white pupils in the academic paths were larning the problem-solving accomplishments needed in readying for the workplace of the hereafter instead than larning accomplishments for water under the bridge occupations of the yesteryear. The ground for utilizing the term â€Å" position care † is because every bit long as minorities and the hapless typify pupils in vocational or low-level ability groups, schools will go on to restrict these pupils ‘ entree to take down accomplishment degrees than their higher-tracked equals ( Oakes, 1986 ) . The findings overpoweringly confirm that the socioeconomic positio n and cultural backgrounds of the pupils influence their path arrangements.Opportunities for larningIn this subdivision, chances for acquisition is equated with equal entree to quality instruction. Opportunities for larning include the sums of direction clip and prep given, the curricular content taught, the stuffs used, the activities engaged in, and teacher presentation. These factors are compared in the ability groups of high, medium and low to make up one's mind if each group is having comparable chances for acquisition and if non, what are the differences. Of the research that discussed chances for larning considered in this paper all agreed that inequalities existed when any sort of ability grouping was used. All of the writers focussed on between-class ability grouping except for Sorenson and Hallinan ( 1986 ) who discussed within-class ability grouping. Trimble and Sinclair ( 1987 ) studied the differences in the curricular content and instructional methods of United States history categories across the three ability groups in six Massachusetts high schools. Muskin ‘s research ( 1990 ) besides used the United States history categories from six high schools to analyze the differences in chances for larning in awards, regular and basic categories. Both Goodland and Oakes ( 1988 ) , Lake ( 1988 ) , and Oakes ( 1986 ) presented a sum-up of findings from old research. All of these writers agree on the undermentioned findings. A higher per centum of clip was devoted to instruction, clip on undertaking and prep in the higher-tracked categories than in the lower paths. High-tracked, college-bound direction emphasized analysis and critical-thinking accomplishments, while non-college edge direction concentrated on rote memory and low-level cognition accomplishments ( Goodland & A ; Oakes, 1988 ; Lake, 1988 ; Muskin, 1990 ; Oakes, 1986 ; Trimble & A ; Sinclair, 1987 ) . In many instances, instructors in low-ability categories spent more clip commanding behavior jobs which resulted in reduced acquisition clip, than did instructors of high-ability categories ( Goodland & A ; Oakes, 1988 ; Lake, 1988 ; Muskin, 1990 ; Oakes, 1986 ; Trimble & A ; Sinclair, 1987 ) . Trimble and Sinclair ( 1987 ) besides talked about the affectional ends of the United States history categories. Affectional ends as they apply to United States history describe instructors ‘ attempts to develop a sense of broadened feelings for the humanistic disciplines and cultivate a desire to go good citizens. The affectional sphere does non concentrate on the memorisation of facts and figures ; instead it develops an grasp for what pupils are larning and how it applies to their day-to-day lives. This can be generalized to all school topics. There was a disparity in the clip devoted to affectional ends between the high-ability categories and the low and mean categories. The high-ability classes spent more clip prosecuting affectional ends while the low and mean categories spent more clip on the memorisation of facts ( Trimble & A ; Sinclair, 1987 ) . Findingss refering instructor outlooks seemed to impact on the chances for larning. Some instructors enjoyed learning the higher ability classes more than the lower ability 1s and accordingly this was reflected in their lucidity of presentation, undertaking orientation, enthusiasm, effectual usage of stuffs and the assortment of activities planned for their categories. Teachers of higher ability categories demonstrated a higher degree of all the features merely mentioned than instructors of lower grouped categories ( Lake, 1988 ; Oakes, 1986 ; Trimble & A ; Sinclair, 1987 ) . While the above consequences referred to between-class grouping, Sorenson and Hallinan ‘s ( 1986 ) research survey concentrated on within-class grouping in upper simple and in-between school classs. They found that because a instructor ‘s instructional clip was divided between three ability groups, there was less chance for larning because there was less direct instructional clip devoted to each group. While these sorted pupils in heterogenous schoolrooms may hold received less direct instructor direction, the direction they did acquire may hold provided for more acquisition. Students were taught in smaller groups and direction was adapted to their abilities. Small, homogenous groups instead than one big heterogenous group facilitated acquisition. Both Gamoran ( 1990 ) and Oakes ( 1985 ) researched the effects of tracking on pupil and educational results. These research workers found that there were content differences between high and low-tracked categories. In school, p upils can merely larn to what they are exposed. Oakes ( 1985 ) writes â€Å" Yet it is clear from the research on tracking that the pattern constitutes a authorities action that restricts pupils ‘ immediate entree to certain types of instruction and to both educational and occupational chances in the hereafter † ( p. 189 ) . Whether or non the same content was available in each path degree, the differences in sum of clip devoted and the instructional manner used, straight affected what pupils learned ( Gamoran, 1990 ; Oakes, 1985 ) . It is clear from the surveies cited in this subdivision that inequalities sing chances for larning do be when tracking or ability grouping is used.DecisionThe surveies and articles which have been reviewed seldom agreed on the benefits or harmful effects of ability grouping. The balance of the available grounds does propose that grouping affects achievement, self-concept, anticipations and attitudes, and chances for larning. While these four issues are affected by grouping, ability grouping is affected by socioeconomic position. One must retrieve when comparing the effects of heterogenous and homogenous categories ‘ accomplishment, three types of schoolroom constructions are being evaluated: heterogenous or whole-class direction, within-class ability grouping, and betw een-class ability grouping. Generally findings are different for each construction. When looking specifically at within-class grouping, it is found that high-ability groups attain a higher accomplishment than low-ability groups ( Reuman, 1989 ) . In comparing to heterogenous grouping, within-class grouping and concerted acquisition groups are more good to achievement ( Slavin & A ; Karweit, 1984 ) . In consideration of between-class ability grouping, widely used in secondary schools ( Slavin, 1990 ) , low winners received higher classs and high winners received lower classs ( Reuman, 1989 ) . When comparing between-class grouping to heterogenous categories we found that high winners in advanced-tracked categories showed greater accomplishment than high winners in heterogenous categories ( Newfield & A ; McElyea, 1983 ) . Summarily, ability grouping is non needfully harmful, but the pattern of ability grouping unsupported by an overall educational intent can take to ill-defined effects on pupil educational results and public presentation in mathematics. It is a recommendation that any school seeking to re-evaluate their grouping system should take into consideration the pupil organic structure composing, the intent of ability group arrangement and the coveted educational results. Before following any ability-group method, one needs to see their school ‘s committedness to teacher preparation, ability to back up staff and the benefits of the employment of concerted acquisition as an instructional method.

Noli Me Tangere Essay

During the gloomy winter of Berlin -Rizal was famished, sick, and despondent. -Notwithstanding his empty stomach, his painful coughing, and his despairing spirit, he continued writing his first novel. -He finished the novel on February 21, 1887 It was the Noli Me Tangere. His first novel. *Idea of Writing A Novel on Philippines* – His reading Harriet Beecher Stowe’s uncle Tom’s Cabin. which portrays the brutalities of American slave-owners and the pathetic conditions of the unfortunate negro, slaves, inspired Dr. Rizal to prepare a novel on the Philippines. -He was then a student in the Central University of Madrid. -In a reunion of Filipinos in the house of the paternos in Madrid on January 2, 1884. -Among whom were the paternos (Pedro, Maximino, and Antonio), Graciano Lopez Jaena, Evaristo Aguirre, Eduardo do de lete, Julio Llorante, and Valentin Ventura. *The Writing of the †Noli.†* -Toward the 1884, Rizal began writing the novel in Madrid and finished about one –haft of it. -He went to Paris in 1885, after completing his studies in the Universidad Central de Madrid. -He wrote the last fourth of the novel in Germany. -During the dark days of December, 1886. -He wrote to his friend, Fernando Canon; â€Å"I did not believe that the Noli Me Tangere would ever be published when I was in Berlin, heart-broken weakened, and discouraged from hunger and deprivation. -In mid-December, a telegram Barcelona arrived. -It was sent by Dr.Maximo Viola. *The Man who Saved the â€Å"Noli.†* -The first edition of the Noli was printed in Berlin in 1887. -The cost of printing was 300 pesos (advance by Vioa) for 2,000 copies. – A dedicatory autograph as follows: â€Å"To my dear Friend, Maximo Viola , the first to read and appreciate my work – Jose Rizal, March 29, 1887, Berlin.† -This Date- March 29, 1887, is a significant date for it was when the Noli Me Tangere came off the press. *The Title of the Novel.* -The title Noli Me Tangere, isa a latin phrase which means â€Å"Touch me Not.† -Rizal, writing to Felix R. Hidalgo in French in March 1887. -It should be the Gospel of st. John (chapter 20, Verses 13 to 17). *The author’s Dedication.* -Rizal dedicated the Noli Me Tangere to the Philippines – â€Å"To My Country.† *Synopsis of the â€Å"Noli†* -The Novel Noli Me Tangere contains 63 chapters and an epilogue. -It Begins with a reception given by Capitan Tiago (Santiago de los Santos) -at his house in Calle Analoague ( now Juan Luna Street) on the last day of October. -This Reception or dinner was given in honor of Crisostomo Ibarra. -Among the guests during the reception were Padre Damaso, a Franciscan friar who had been parish priest of San Diego (Calamba). -Padre Sibyla, a young Dominican parish Priest of binondo. -Senior Guevara, an elderly and kind lieutenant of the Guardian Civi. -Don Tiburcio de Espadania, a bogus spanish Physician , lame, and henpecked husband of Donia Victorina; and several ladies. -During the dinner the conversation on Ibarra’s studies and travels abroad. -Padre damaso was in bad mood because he got a bony neck and hard wing of the chicken tinola. -Ibarra left capitan tiago’s house to return to his hotel. -Don Rafael’s father was a rich and brave man. -He visited Maria Clara, his childhood sweetheart. -Ibarra was angered by the grave-digger’s story. -Ibarra’s left the cemetery . on the way, he met padre salvi, Franciscan parish priest of san Diego. -In his town, Ibarra met several interesting people , such as the wise old man Tasio the sage. â€Å"Tasio the Lunatic.† -Governadoroillo, who catered to wishes of the Spanish parish priest; Don Filipo Lino, teniente mayor and leader. -Don Melchor, the captain of the cuadrilleros (town Police). -Capitan tiago, Maria Clara and aunt Isabel who took care of Maria Clara, after mother’s death arrive in san diego. -Ibarra and his friends gave a picnic in the lake. -Among those present in the picnic, were Maria Clara and her four girl friends, â€Å"the merry sinang, the grave Victoria, the beautiful Iday, and the thoughtful Neneng.† –

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adsfasdf Essay Oh, theyve encased him in carbonite. He should be quite well protected. If he survived the freezingprocess, that is. C-3P0 As any Ugnaught will tell you, theres more to Cloud City than just Dark Deal or a bad case of gas. One ofthe more eagerly awaited features of Cloud City was Carbon-Freezing, and, although it isnt exactly themost stable strategy to base a deck around, it can still serve as a healthy deterrent to anyone foolishenough to attempt a takeover of Cloud City. But before you can serve your guests a chilled side of Solo, youll need to stock up on a few items. Mostvital is the Carbonite Chamber, where it all comes together. Contrary to what you may think, its often bestto hold off on deploying the Chamber until all the necessary components for freezing are in hand, since, ifyour opponent occupies this battleground site, you face an automatic penalty to your Carbon-Freezingdestiny draw. Naturally, youll also require either All Too Easy or Carbon-Freezing to activate the Chambersmechanisms. All Too Easy is the better side strategy, requiring neither a captive nor a separate destinydraw, but it can only be pulled off once and lacks the hefty 8 Force loss incurred by Carbon-Freezing(unless, of course, you happen to have Pray I Dont Alter It Any Further face-up; keep your Darth Vader WithLightsaber handy). Carbon-Freezing also has the additional advantage of being eligible for Twilek Advisor. Nothing like starting the game with a head start!Youll also need some means of artificially enhancing your destiny draw for Carbon-Freezing. After all, itsnot like there arent too many 11-destiny cards out there. The Chamber alone adds two to your draw, butthats not always enough. Ugnaughts can serve as both cumulative one-point bonuses to your destiny, andPrepare The Chamber can also strengthen your chances of success. Its all easily found by flipping a fewswitches on the Carbonite Chamber Console, a handy-dandy device that boosts your Carbon-Freezingdraw by three. And, finally, youll require a captive. While this stipulation may have been bothersome back in the earlydays, recent innovations have made it less of a hassle. You can begin the game with a captive in play ifyoure using the Carbon Chamber Testing. Objective, or you can steal your opponents captive if the Light Side is using Rescue The Princess. Oo-ta,Goo-ta, Solo? is a hassle-free way to take a few captives if your opponent is a Nabrun Leids fan. HiddenWeapons is a nasty surprise in battle, and All Wrapped Up makes capturing a natural result of battle. Butsome of the best options available have horror of horrors! green borders. Zuckuss Snare Rifle andDengars Blaster Carbine are both weapons that can snag captives, and both can be deployed on yourbounty hunters easily with Jabbas Through With You. And we must not forget the terrible IG-88 With RiotGun, a take-all-prisoners killing machine who cannot even be battled, making him a perfect Sniper. Now that you have everything you need (finally!), its easy to freeze. Just draw, add your modifiers, and voila!Theres your frozen captive, who is far more secure than other captives, since hes encased in liquid metal. Furthermore, your opponent loses eight Force, quite a hit to take. If you wish, you can go for the big gunswith two wicked Utinni Effects. The Emperors Prize is just the ticket for that player who thinks Luke andcompany is all he needs to stop any threat. Once young Skywalker is frozen, relocate him to the DeathStar: Detention Block Corridor with his old man and your opponent loses half his Life Force! While it mayseem like a long shot, its easy to find the Detention Block, either with Sonic Bombardment or the morerecent Any Methods Necessary, and who doesnt play with Vader?If your opponent is more of a team player, you can set a lovely trap for him with Were The Bait. Freeze anyone of Lukes best buddies and watch the farmboy scramble to save them, since hes losing three Force aturn. If he tries to cheat and hire Nabrun Leids, you may as well play Oo-ta, Goo-ta, Solo? and earn yourselfanother Rebel juice pop in the making. READ: Anarchy EssayAll this may seem like it takes too much deck space to be worth the trouble, and in many cases it is. Butmany of these cards have other applications. Ugnaughts are notorious patrons of a certain Den OfThieves, they admire Abyssin Ornaments and Ugloste gives them more bang for the buck. Prepare TheChamber, aside from increasing your Carbon-Freezing destiny draws, can add an extra battle destiny ifyour little porkers are defending. And, if youre using This Deal Is Getting Worse All The Time/Pray I DontAlter It Any Further, theyll even increase your total battle destiny by four points when theyre with Imperials!All Too Easy is a less card-intensive means of freezing Luke, Han, Leia or Chewie if youre interested inThe Emperors Prize or Were The Bait. And the mechanic fits right into capturing-related decks. We would be honored if you would join us.Darth Vader All this is only scratching the surface. Cloud City can support almost any sort of deck you can imagine. From the popular Dark Deal to the deadly Carbon-Freezing, there are more kinds of decks that can bebased on Bespin than nearly any other system. It might be worth your while to take a long, hard lookthrough your binder and reconsider cards and concepts you may have forgotten two years ago. You justmight find a Surprise or two. And the drama! Zube and Zube give Cloud City two thumbs up. Time for some equality!

Rodney King Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Rodney King - Research Paper Example It will also review whether the attack was a case of police brutality, racial discrimination etc or on the other hand whether it was a justified action on the part of the law enforcement officials of the City. Relevant statistical data will also be given that justifies either of the stands or viewpoints given above. The Unfolding of the King Story and its Aftermath It could be said that the incident sparked off indignation and disbelief followed by forms of illegal retribution from the minority community in the city. â€Å"On March 03 1991, a bystander videotaped Rodney King, an African-American resident of Los Angeles, being beaten up by four White officers of the Los Angeles Police Department, who used a sten gun on King and repeatedly kicked him and hit him with batons† (Sigelman et al, 777, 1997). The article goes on to explain the (initial) feelings of various individuals who expressed indignation regarding the action of the LA police department. The amateur video segment does show King being overpowered and eventually being brutalized by a superior force, the officers of the City Police Department. ... exited at the Sunland Boulevard off ramp and returned to the freeway to chase the speeding car at speeds of up to 117 miles per hour.   King ignored the flashing lights and sped off an exit ramp.   He ran a red light, nearly causing an accident, before finally coming to a stop near the entrance to Hansen Dam Park, at the intersection of Osborne Street and Foothill Boulevard.   Within seconds, three Los Angeles police cars and a police helicopter arrived at the scene† (Linder 2001). King apparently stopped at a busy neighborhood so that there were possible witnesses as to what would happen to him after his imminent stoppage and possible arrest by the police. But what happened was a scene of brutality that was beyond the any civilized action by a law enforcement agency considering the crime King committed, namely driving under influence (DUI), probation restrictions, exceeding speed limits, and avoiding police action. The cornered car contained three occupants including Kin g. Two of the occupants complied with police demands to lie down on the ground and King did not apparently did not do likewise. The four officers (out of other police personnel) involved brutally attacked an apparently unarmed King. The amateur video taken by George Holliday showed an instance of how police personnel tackle a person accused of breaking the law. King was repeatedly beaten with batons and kicked by the officers involved. It was always reported that other law enforcement officials of the LA police department were silent or passive witnesses to the incident. King was repeatedly beaten and sometimes kicked by the law enforcement officials without any apparent aggressive act by the former. â€Å"Mr. King at first said to have only 'cuts and bruises' received while resisting arrest had his

Critique of Violence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Critique of Violence - Essay Example Notably, abolishing states would not be an end to violence in the world as human beings would turn against one another. However, there is need for strict control of power possessed by states to ensure that incidences of violence are minimized and the public are at a less vulnerable point. The members of public should work together to limit government power in order to reduce cases of violence within states. State violence is a scenario that emerged as soon as the state was formed. The theories of state formation indicate that states originated from the intention of human beings to surrender power to a central body that would protect people from one another. In nature, human beings are aggressive and would do anything to acquire wealth and other material things. It is this aggressive nature of human beings that brings the urge to kill as each of them pursues their interests. Therefore, human beings had to surrender this ill power to the state so that the state would control their aggression. Consequently, the state uses this power to exercise violence within the public. As Weber (11-40) notes, the state is a relation of men dominating men by means of legitimate violence. The implication is that the state government uses the power accorded by the public to control them and to exercise violence within the boundaries. Since the state is unquestionable and is responsible for the formation o f laws, they possess the power to exercise violence with no questions from the public. Therefore, the public are submissive to the power of the government, and this puts them at a vulnerable position. The state uses violence to pursue their selfish goals and to control the rebellion of the members of public. Mbembe (12) points out that the government possesses the power to decide who dies and who lives. This implies that the sovereignty of the state is manifested in their ability to decide matters of life. While government can

Social Issue Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Social Issue - Essay Example Centre for the Prevention of School Violence, North Carolina Department of juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention explain school violence as: School violence is any behaviour that violates school’s educational mission or climate of respect or jeopardizes the intent of the school to be free of aggression against persons or property, drugs, weapons, disruptions and disorder (2002). Signs that should ring an alarm / risk behaviours School violence are found to be linked with a number of behaviours and activities such as formation of gangs, threatening teachers or causing injury to them, students carrying weapons, physical fights, drug abuse or illegal consumption of alcohol, students being threatened or injured on school property, sexual assaults, robbery, bullying or cyber-bullying (verbal, mental or physical), vandalizing school property and skipping or dropping out of school. Facts about School Violence Key findings issued by a federal government report (2002) as well as facts given by CDC (2008-2010) say that such violent incidents are well planned and are rarely sudden or done upon impulse. Other people are aware of the idea / attack plan but fail to act upon the information prior to the incident and most attackers show behavioural indication (journal entries, threatening notes, verbal abuse / threats) prior to attack. Mostly attackers have access to weapons, have felt bullied or maltreated by others, have difficulty coping with a loss or failure, or have considered or attempted suicide. Most of the incidents have taken places around or at transition times such as lunch breaks or at the end or start of school. National level data source indicates that large middle and high schools are at more risk of serious violence, moreover, urban schools for minorities also report a high indication of an unlikely incident as compared to rural or suburban schools. Steps towards prevention of School Violence Prevention should start at the facility i.e. the schoo l by providing students with a healthy and safe environment to learn and engage in harmless extracurricular activities. Security system should be fool proof without giving students the image of a prison, with guards, counsellors, security cameras and metal detectors. Teachers and school staff (administration) should be trained and educated to detect and identify problems in a student or within a circumstance. Parents should be encouraged to get involved and groom their children during their crucial years. Acceptance & tolerance is the key to providing prevention to school violence, live and let live policy should be adopted and hammered into students instead of harnessing categorizations and distinctions, be it ethnic, personality, activities or preferences. Various education and support programs should be design with key physiologists to use theories and techniques to enhance tolerance, acceptance and involvement of a student and increase their compassion for life and society. Scho ol Violence and its Sociological Impact School violence negatively affects the students all over the world. It is not only violation of the rights of a child but acts as a significant barrier in achieving various international goals for improving communities and human life such as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by United Nations and Education for all (EFA) objectives by UNESCO. This impacts the education (attendance, attainment and

3-page Report on Problem 28 pages with conclusions and show Essay

3-page Report on Problem 28 pages with conclusions and show calculations - Essay Example At the same time, because investors believe that managers know the correct share price, IST faces a lemons problem if it attempts to raise the $500 million by issuing equity. a. Suppose that if IST issues equity, the share price will remain $13.50. To maximize the long term share price of the firm once its true value is known, would managers choose to issue equity or borrow the $500 million if If there are no costs from issuing debt, then the managers would only issue equity if the correct value shares are overvalued. But because of this, investors would only buy equity at the lowest possible value for the firm, which in this case is $12.50 and not $13.50. Since there would be no gains by issuing equity, the firm would issue debt. The key to the decision of the managers on whether to borrow or issue equity lies with the accuracy of the information that they have. In the two cases we analyzed, if the value of shares is actually lower than the current share price (it is overvalued), it would make sense for the managers to issue equity, knowing that investors will respond in such a way that the price will just eventually go down to the actual value of the shares. However, if the actual value turns out to be higher (it is undervalued), borrowing shows that the company thinks (or knows) this is so and will prompt investors to raise share prices eventually matching the value that the managers want it to reach. This phenomenon says a lot about how information about the actual value of a stock versus speculative pricing affects the market. Investors respond to choices made by companies based on assumptions like the ones we illustrated, whether or not managers are educated enough to know that the market will move that way. In this, we see that reckless borrowing or selling leads to undesirable results for managers. In the same way, managers who have deft control of

Stress in the Workplace, Its Signs; the Key Areas of Employee Stress Essay

Stress in the Workplace, Its Signs; the Key Areas of Employee Stress in the Workplace and Work-Life Balance - Essay Example This essay explores the several causes of stress in the workplace that may result in poor performance and other negative impacts in the workplace. These may include employees facing conditions of overwork, low levels of job satisfaction, job insecurity, and lack of autonomy and/or harassment in the course of work. Workplace stress has detrimental effects on the well-being of employees as well as an effect on health. Work-life balance refers to the policies that aim at achieving a greater complementary and equality or balance between work and various home responsibilities. The policies apply to all workers whether parenting or not. Lack of these policies would result in different forms of stress in the working environment. Failure to meet the work-life balance may result to stress in employees and may affect organizational performance. Individuals and organizations should be able to identify the stressors in workplace and design amicable solution to combat the issue. If there is an ea rly address on potential stressors, individuals and organizations may be able to alleviate the negative effects associated with stress. To handle the menace well, employees need to identify signs and possible stressors. On the other hand, managers need awareness on the effects of stress on employees and general performance of the company in terms of output. It is necessary for an individual to learn how to keep away from stress as it is necessary too for employers. A person who is subject to stress may show various signs. These signs may be inward or outward depending on the different people. Inward signs may consist of immediate body changes such as the change in heart rate, nausea, or vomiting. Other internal signs may include a feeling of anger, protest, frustration, guilt, embarrassment, memory loss, prolonged sleeplessness, and strange dreams. These indicate stress and require attention before affecting work and personal life. Outward signs are noticeable by colleagues and thos e in the managerial sector. They include increased smoking, alcohol consumption, and drug taking. Reduced performance, irritability, absenteeism, complaints about ill health and deteriorating relationship with colleagues may indicate stress.

Ronald Reagan's Presidency Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Ronald Reagan's Presidency - Research Paper Example He changed his political views from  liberal  to being a  conservative  spokesperson as a television host, touring the entire country (Reagan, Kiron, Annelise, and Martin 18). He  was elected  the Californian Governor by a one million-vote margin. He  was later re-elected  in 1970. In 1980, Ronald Reagan won the Presidential nomination for Republican and opted for  previous  Texas congressional representative and the current  ambassador  for United Nations George Bush, as his running mate. Troubled by the running inflation and the  incarceration  of Americans in Iran for a year, the Americans voted in the Republican in to the presidency by a whopping 489 votes to President Jimmy Carter’s 49. On 20 January 1981, Reagan  was sworn  into office. After just 69 days, he  was caught  by an assassin’s bullet; nevertheless, he recovered  fast  and returned to perform his duties. His popularity soared during the period of the tragic  inc idence  due to his  wit  and grace. During his tenure as the 40th president of the United States, Reagan accomplished many achievements that  will be remembered  forever in the American History books and the world at large. In 1988 during Reagan’s last year in office, the rate of inflation dropped to 4.4% as compared to 12.5% during Jimmy Carter’s last year in power in 1980. In addition, the rate of unemployment drastically dropped during Reagan’s administration from 7.5% to 5.4%, with the  rate  reaching highs of 10.8% and 10.4% in 1982 and 1983 respectively (Schaller 36). Reagan oversaw the implementation of policies based on the economics of supply-  side  and called for a free-market and liberal-classical philosophy. These policies aimed to reduce the  large  tax cuts across the various sectors of the economy. During his regime, Reagan was also for the idea of taking  back  the U.S. to the era of the gold standard. Reagan’s

You can make a topic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

You can make a topic - Essay Example Leopold argues that there have not been laws to determine the ethical aspects of the person and other things like land and animals which are relevant parts of the life of people. This means that people are likely participate in the different ways that violates the rights of the land and animals without getting subjected to any law (Leopold 163-164). Leopold (165) argue ethics is a guide that should dictate the behavior of people when they are interacting with other parts of the ecology in which they live and exploit to have their livelihood. According to him for example, land ethic makes Homo sapiens just members in the ecology as opposed to his conquering position in which he may take advantage of other individuals in the society. This means that people cannot exploit the land while provoking the rights of the other organisms that are occupying the same environment because the rights make all of them equal members in the environment. In another area, Leopold says that conservation is one of the key components and role that members of the ecology should carry on as long as they are in the environment. This means that all the occupants need to be conscious of the place in which they live and therefore, they should engage in practices that will ensure that they their stay is sustainable. On the other hand, Leopold (166) provides an alternative to land ethics which is looking at the fact of conservation from the perspective of the economic value of each member of the ecology. This means that all the plants and animals that produce nothing of economic significance should be left out to survive on their own and can also be eliminated to allow the productivity of the land. The strength of Leopold’s work is that it provides a framework of the behavior of different individuals in the ecology as role players to ensure conservation of the environment without

History of Brazil Essay Example for Free

History of Brazil Essay It is a matter of fact that Brazil is a country of contrasts. One can easily observe that the development of this nation is incredibly uneven. Taking into consideration their past experience, the Brazilians are seeing some very good times as a nation. Certainly, they have overcrowding problems. However, each country has its own difficulties and tries to overcome them. Thus, the diversity of this country and its amazing history has brought a â€Å"mixing bowl† of culture preparing a bright future for Brazil. It is widely known that four major groups make up the Brazilian population. They are the Portuguese, who colonized Brazil in the 16th century; Africans brought to the country as slaves; various European, Middle Eastern, and Asian immigrant peoples who have settled in Brazil since the mid-19th century; and indigenous people of Guarani and Tupi language. (Skidmore, 131) Brazil is the only Latin American nation that takes its language and culture mainly from Portugal. Intermarriage between indigenous people or slaves and the Portuguese was a common phenomenon. Despite the fact that the major European ethnic culture of Brazil was once Portuguese, waves of immigration have greatly contributed to a diverse ethnic and cultural heritage. Admiral Pedro Alvares Cabral claimed Brazilian territory for Portugal in 1500. The early explorers brought back a wood with them that produced a red dye, pau-brasil. This is where the land received its original name. Portugal began colonization in 1532 and made the area a royal colony in 1549. During the Napoleonic Wars, fearing the advancing French armies, King Joao VI left the country in 1808 and set up his court in Rio de Janeiro. He was brought home later in 1820 by a revolution, leaving his son as regent. When Portugal wanted to reduce Brazil to colonial status again, the prince declared Brazils independence on Sept. 7, 1822. Thus, he became Dom Pedro I, emperor of Brazil. Harassed by his Parliament, Pedro I resigned in 1831 in favor of his five-year-old son who became emperor Dom Pedro II in 1840. Emperor Pedro II ruled to 1889 when a federal republic was established as a result of a coup detat organized by Deodoro da Fonseca, marshal of the army. A year earlier, while Dom Pedro II was in Europe, the Regent Princess Isabel had abolished Slavery. Abreu, 311) Dom Pedro II was a popular monarch. Yet discontent grew up and, in 1889, he had to resign because of a military revolt. Although a republic was proclaimed at that time, Brazil was ruled by military dictatorships until a revolt allowed returning gradually to stability under civilian presidents. From 1889 to 1930, the government was a constitutional democr acy. The presidency was alternating between the dominant states of Sao Paulo and Minas Gerais. This period ended with a coup detat that placed a civilian, Getulio Vargas, in the presidency. He remained as a dictator until 1945. From 1945 to 1961, presidents of Brazil became Eurico Dutra, Vargas, Juscelino Kubitschek, and Janio Quadros. When Quadros abdicated in 1961, he was succeeded by Vice President Joao Goulart. (Abreu, 329) Goularts years in office were marked by high inflation, total economic failure, and the increasing influence of radical political parties. The armed forces alarmed by these developments organized a coup detat on March 31, 1964. The coup leaders chose Humberto Castello Branco a president, followed by Arthur da Costa e Silva (1967-69), Emilio Garrastazu Medici (1968-74), and then Ernesto Geisel (1974-79). All of them were senior army officers. Geisel began a liberalization that was carried further by his successor, General Joao Baptista de Oliveira Figueiredo (1979-85). In the last of a long series of military coups, General Joao Baptista de Oliveira Figueiredo became president in 1979. He pledged a return to democracy in 1985. Figueiredo not only allowed the return of politicians exiled or banned from political activity during the 1960s and 1970s, yet also permitted them to run for state and federal offices in 1982. (Alden, 284) However, at the same time, the Electoral College consisting of all members of Congress and also six delegates chosen from each state continued its activities of choosing the president. The election of Tancredo Neves on January 15, 1985, the first civilian president since 1964, brought a nationwide wave of optimism and activity. He was elected from the opposition Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB). (Alden, 287) However, when Neves died on April 21, Vice President Sarney became president. The latter was widely distrusted because he had previously been a devoted member of the military regimes political party. Collor de Mello won the election of late 1989 with 53% of the vote in the first direct presidential election in his 29 years. (Abreu, 378) Mello promised to lower the persistent hyperinflation by following the path of free-market economics. Having faced impeachment by Congress because of a corruption scandal in December 1992, Mello finally resigned. Vice President Itamar Franco took his place and assumed the presidency. Fernando Cardoso, a former finance minister, won the presidency in the October 1994 election having 54% of the vote. He took office on January 1, 1995. (Skidmore, 232) Cardoso has organized the disposal of bad government-owned monopolies in the electrical power, telecommunication, port, railway, mining, and banking industries. His timely proposals to Congress included constitutional amendments in order to open the Brazilian economy to greater foreign participation and to implement such sweeping reforms as social security, government administration, and taxation so as to reduce excessive public sector spending and considerably improve government efficiency. Alden, 298) During his short time in the office, Cardosos economic wisdom has made a measurable progress in overcoming Brazils poverty level. It is remarkable to observe how the Brazilian government makes certain efforts in order to address basic needs of its people such as education, distribution of meals, health care, and the promotion of childrens rights. Co-signed by the President of Brazil and 24 state governors, the Pact for the Children is intended to fully implement the constitutional and legal obligations providing for protection of children and adolescents. Several federal agencies supervise the execution of government programs for children and adolescents aimed to give Brazilian youth opportunities for a better life, shelter, education, and love. Thus, if not forgetting about the past mistakes and taking care of its nation, the Brazilians will surely come to the brightest future.

School Inspections Improve School Quality Education Essay

School Inspections Improve School Quality Education Essay Introduction This critical appraisal of a research article entitled Do school inspections improve school quality? Ofsted inspections and school examination results in the UK looks at the research methodology, style and approach adopted by the writer, Leslie Rosenthal. The article has been chosen as it discusses whether the inspection process, that has been designed to improve standards in schools, actually make exam results worse, in particularly in the year during inspection. If the researchers theory is found to be correct, this would lead to questions about the effectiveness, and value for money of the inspection process. The objectives for carrying out a critical appraisal of this piece of research are to identify the research approach that has been adopted the research style that has been used the intended research population how information will be gained from the research population the research instruments used any other considerations such as validity, reliability and credibility Each of the objectives will be discussed in turn, making explicit reference to the research article and current research methods literature. A summary of findings will be presented at the end of the assignment. Background Leslie Rosenthal (2004) states that Improving the quality of state-funded secondary school education remains a major explicit policy aim in the UK and is the central means by which state-provided education in the UK is now regulated, though a system of inspections carried out by the Office of Standards in Education (Ofsted), set up in 1992. Research has been conducted which looks at the exam results of state-funded ,non-selective English secondary schools that had been inspected during the year of the exams. Rosenthal, L. (2004) describes the research as empirical research several times throughout the text. The data used for the research has come from publicly available material based on the exam success of 15-16 year old students in state-funded school. This measure of performance, from secondary school performance tables, is used to test the proposition that in the year of an Ofsted inspection, the measure of the quality of the school changes. Empirical research is described as research of any phenomenon that results in outwardly measurable criteria, or can be verified by observation or used to derive a particular interpretation, (Opie, C. 2006). Empirical research lends itself to quantitative approaches in educational research in order to lead to generalisability. This means that the research findings can be applied to other settings than where they where originally founded in order to show that the statement is true (CEM, 2009).This could be important to empirical or experimental research where the research design may not be ethical or practical in the required setting, but the results could be compared from another setting. Empirical research is described by Verma and Mallick (2004) as the starting point to a research problem, with a view to explaining important factors or what happened after the research has been carried out. This implies that the research has been carried out with an open mind and results should not b e corrupt or biased. Rosenthal carried out empirical research using data from the year previous to, and post Ofsted inspection to confirm the validity and generalisability of the results obtained (these terms will be discussed in more detail under objective 6). The purpose of this is to show that there exists a small negative effect on exam results during the year that Ofsted inspects a school, even though the general philosophy of the agencys approach is described by its own motto as Improvement through Inspection, and one of their four objectives is to raise standards of achievement by students in exams (Ofsted, 1995). Objective 1 Identify the research approach that has been adopted The overall approach to the research that was carried out by Rosenthal was a quantitative approach. Bryman, (2008) describes quantitative research as deductive and testing theory rather than being inductive or generating theory as with qualitative analysis. The theoretical and conceptual structure of the research is determined before testing it through empirical observation. Quantitative research is not merely number crunching but is the use of theory to deduce a hypothesis. Primary or secondary information is then gathered to test the hypothesis. Primary information research involves gathering new data by means of written questionnaire, survey, or face to face and telephone interviews. However, Rosenthal used secondary information, which is research or information that has already been collected by somebody else, in this case, Government officials collecting data about schools to measure attainment and performance. To carry out quantitative research, any information, whether from primary or secondary sources, needs to be processed in some way in order to quantify it. Rosenthal has used statistical measures to analyse the secondary data and show the effects of Ofsted inspections in school quality. Opie, (2006) describes quantitative research as being objective and positivistic as opposed to subjective and anti-positivistic. Objectivity can be defined as unbiased and open-minded, and that only one interpretation or meaning can be drawn from the data, where as a subjective point of view is regarded as belonging to an individual as a result of their own consciousness or thought. Subjectivity is not based on facts that can be demonstrated or observed, but could in fact be interpreted in different ways. This piece of research has been based on facts from secondary information, and independent variables that could have a positive or negative effect on results have been tested to ensure that the results are unbiased and can not be interpreted in different ways therefore demonstrating the quantitative nature of the research. Objective 2 Identify the research style that has been used The style of research that has been adopted by the researcher is Evaluation Research. According to Burton Bartlett (2005), evaluation research is used to assess the effectiveness of specific projects to see if the original aims have been met. Rosenthal states that the objective of the research is to investigate the direct influence of Ofsted inspections on exam performance of inspected schools for the year of the inspection, as one of the four objectives for inspection is to raise the standards of achievement by students (in exams). In other words, the research has been carried out to evaluate how effective the inspection process has been at raising student achievement in exams at GCSE level. Evaluation research is often funded by government in order to evaluate the effectiveness of policies or procedures, and can be broken down into formative and summative evaluation. According to Trochim and Donnelly (2007) formative evaluation research is carried out during a program or activity in order to form the direction or strengthen the outcomes of the activity. The formative research is used as a method of improving the quality of an activity by looking at the needs, conceptualisation, implementation and processes of the activity. Summative evaluation research looks to summarise the activity in terms of meeting objectives, cost-analysis and impact. The research may be conducted to improve performance or processes if the activity is to be repeated, or to carry out secondary analysis, which re-examines existing data to answer new questions that may have arisen from the activity. Rosenthals research is summative as it is not intended to improve the processes of inspection, but to summarise whether or not the inspection has met its own objectives of raising standards of achievement in exams. Objective 3 Identify the intended research population The indented research population is clearly stated by Rosenthal, in section 4 of the report as state-funded, non-selective English secondary schools that serve students up to 16 years. State-funded schools that are selective on the basis of religion (voluntary aided, voluntary assisted and special agreement schools) and/or on the basis of academic ability (grammar and secondary modern, and selective grant maintained schools) have been excluded from the study. Only those schools that were inspected under Section 10 of the 1992 Education (Schools) Act were included in the study and not those classed as failing or having serious weaknesses. Data was gathered from approximately 2,300 schools inspected during the years 1993/4 to 1997/8 with some 2,700 Ofsted inspections taking place. Under Section 10 of the 1992 Educations (Schools) Act, schools were to be inspected at least once in every four year cycle; therefore around one quarter of the 2,300 schools would be inspected each year, duri ng the four year research period. The exact figures have been shown in table form in section 4 (Data and method) by Rosenthal. Objective 4 Identify how information will be gained from the research population The information needed to carry out the empirical research was, and still is, freely available in the public domain for use by Rosenthal. Rosenthal references the web address for Secondary School Performance Tables (or Achievement and Attainment Tables as they are now called) and these tables are published annually on the Department for Children, Schools and Families website (http://www.dcsf.gov.uk/performancetables/) and in national newspapers. Information contained in these performance tables includes the official measures of exam success of 15-16 year old students at GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education) level or equivalent. The data collected focuses specifically on the number of GCSE passes at grades A* C in each school year of the research period 1993/4 to 1997/8. Objective 5 Identify the research instruments used Secondary data analysis has been carried out by Rosenthal. As discussed in objective one, secondary data is information that has been gathered previously by another person for some purpose, rather than information which is being gathered for the first time as with primary data. The data that Rosenthal used was gathered by the Department for Education and Skills (DfES), and published in the annual league tables that shows the performance of a school in terms of attainment and achievement, pupil attendance and proportion of students with Special Education Needs (SEN) [DCSF accessed on 4th March 10]. Objective 6 Identify any other considerations such as validity, reliability and credibility Summary of findings

What Happens When We Die Religion Essay

What Happens When We Die Religion Essay Death is an issue that we all face no matter what our personal beliefs are so What Happens When We Die?, is one of the greatest questions of life. Generally we are very reluctant to think of our own expiry. Death is a great equaliser and no matter what or whom you are in life, eventually we all have to face the reality of dying. Is death the end of our consciousness and existence? In spite of hundreds years of research, Science cannot prove when or where life began. Researchers have found that the human nervous system and brain operate largely through electrical impulses. The brain requires blood and oxygen to function, when breathing, if our blood circulation is impaired, the brain simply does not function or ceases completely. Humans are a complex structure composed of many co-operating interactions within our bodies. We have a desire to understand and influence, search for explanations through our natural curiosity and yet, we are so preoccupied with the everyday concerns of our lives that death is pushed into the background until we have to face it through the loss of a loved one. Our thoughts turn to their demise and we decide whether we believe they are gone to a better pace, is there a better life after death, does death bring a new life, are our departed loved ones sleeping and awaiting reawakening, or does death signify nonexistence .(Atheist). The sheer grief and pain of death, the loss of a loved one causes suffering for those left behind. We carry out an array of customs during the burial of our dead, we commemorate them in memory of their lives as mankind has a need to go through a ritual in order to try to understand what happens when we die. Is it normal to want a future life after death or is death necessary as our limited world cannot conceivably harbinger all life eternally? We question What is Death? What is life? Is death a simple and definable end to life? Where does our spirit go when the bond between our material body is dissolved? Is death permanent? We wonder whether upon death when our physical body disintegrates what happens to our soul?. If we do return, do humans have the ability carry memories of past events into their present life?. Our attempts to understand death generate fear, controversy, self-questioning and rationalisation. In every culture when a loved one dies ceremonies are held by family and friends to reminisce about the dead. Universally, although cultures differ, praying plays a highly important part during the death ceremony. The finality of death is frightening and humankind have dealt with their loss since the beginning of time through ceremonies which us to get through what we dont understand. Death has been depicted by macabre images such as the Grim Reaper coming to take away a persons soul. The scythe is a symbol that he reaps the soul of both saints and sinner alike; The Harvest of Souls. Physical death is the Bottom of Form 1 cessation of bodily functions, when your heart stops beating, your brain stops to function and you stop breathing. It is also the severing of the connection between our spirit from our physical body and when consciousness finally leaves our human form to go to the next life. The mind or soul is not a physical part of our bodies, it is formless and a separate entity from our human body form. Questions are raised upon death; when the body disintegrates at death does our consciousness cease? This is where we search for spiritual answers through religion, creators, God, Gods and Goddesses. During our lives we seek to find answers to the many questions we have about death and man, since the beginning of time, man has tried to conceive a way to escape death. Questions range from; Is death permanent? Does our spirit carry on in another form and at a deeper level of consciousness? Can be reincarnated and come back to Earth? If we are reincarnated are all of our previous memories erased? Is there a creator who will welcome us into our new existence? Are we merely a collection of cells, molecules, skin and are we just another cycle of nature? Are we a natural part of evolution? Is there an afterlife? Is our physical demise temporary? Where, if anywhere, do we go? Scientists find it difficult to accept a life after death theory. However, they have to accept unintelligible natural phenomena and other realms of reality through their own facts based on Quantum Mechanics. Death can be considered either as the end of existence or as a transition to another state of being or consciousness. The Hindus deal with death by viewing life as an illusion and learning through the levels of reincarnation the true meaning of life and both religion and mythology concern themselves with what happens to our essence after physical death. There are many causes of death such as the natural process of aging, natural death, illness, disease, suicide, homicide, natural disasters, accidents and wars. Universally, death rituals can vary extensively depending on religion, race and culture however, rituals and ceremonies are cross cultural such preparation of the corpse for a funeral and the ceremony surrounding the disposing of the corpse. Although practices may differ from culture to culture, death ceremonies are the norm and can include a three day watch of the corpse, gathering of relations and friends to mourn their departed right through to elaborate rituals which go on for weeks. The Ancients flourished on a social structure where rites of ancestor worship and spiritual beliefs were the norm. The Celtic Druids had a strong belief in sacrifice and believed in the reincarnation of the soul into another form hence they did not fear death. The ancient Egyptians practiced forms of ancestor worship and believed in rebirth after death and considered death as merely a temporary interruption. The Mayans were a very religions people who lived in fear of their destructive Gods so their funerals were held with great respect and ceremony. Shamanism is based on the belief that spirits and invisible entities permeate our visible world. The Christians believe that Jesus Christ is the son of God and came down to earth to rid them of original sin thus saving their souls and after death, returning to God in Heaven. Jehovahs Witnesses believe that the Bible is the Manual for Life, Jesus is the Son of God however, they are not Trinitarian. On their death they sleep until God call s everyone who has departed this Earth for Judgement Day and those who lived their lives according to the Bible, will live back on Earth and be reigned by a Council in Heaven. Taking the Bible as an example we determine that the word Heaven, which is used in a strictly material signification as forming a part of the created universe. In Genesis i.1, In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. The ancient Hebrews, however, seem to have entertained strange notions as to the structure of the material Heaven, believing it to be a solid arch resting on pillars, and having foundations. Thus, in Job xxvi. 11, the pillars of Heaven tremble, and we are astonished at his reproof. In other passages of the Bible Heaven is compared to a curtin, or the covering of a tent, as in Ps. civ.2, Who coverest thyself with light as with a garment: who stretchest out the heavens like a curtin. The ancient Jews believed that there were several different Heavens; the lower, the middle, and the third or higher heavens. The lower level of Heaven was considered to take in the clouds and the atmosphere; the middle as being the stellar or starry region; and the third as being the Heaven of Heavens, or the habitation of God and his angels. The word Heaven is not only used in a material but also a spiritual sense, to indicate the future abode of the righteous after death. The belief in Heaven beyond the grave, accordingly, is not limited to Christians, being a recognized creed of Heathens, Jews, and Mohammadeans. Among the ancient Romans and Greeks, the Heaven to which the good ascended was named Elysium. The precise location of Elysium was a topic of debate for generations; writers of classic antiquity declared the happiness of the souls in Elysium to be complete and allegedly, some believed that the departed souls would return to earth again. Eternal blessedness was, in view of the ancient Pagans, reserved for those who were distinguished for their exhalted virtues and who were accordingly admitted into the society of the Gods and could, at any time, return to their ancestors on this earth. Summerland, a place for resting of the soul until it is ready to continue on a journey of self, until the person learned and escalated to the higher realms of eternal consciousness. Heaven of the Hindu culture is the absorption on Brahm and of the Buddhist, annihilation or Nirwana. The priesthood of the ancient Egyptians taught the immortality of the soul under the mane of Palingenesia, or second birth, being a return of the soul to the celestial spheres; or its reabsorption into the Supreme Being. This doctrine was allegedly inculcated only upon the illerate multitudes who could form no conception of the existence of the soul without the body. The ancient Scandinavians, believed in two different heavens; one, the palace of Odin which they named Valhalla where this divinity received all of those who died a violent death; and the other called Gimli (place covered with gold), the everlasting home of the righteous where to enjoy ecstatic and perennial delights. Those received into the palace of Odin, heroes, believed that every day would be filled with fighting, eating, drinking and surrounded by virgins. Jewish Rabbis teach that there is an upper and lower paradise or heaven with a fixed pillar of Zion. On every Sabbath or festival, the righteous climb up and feed themselves with a glance of the Divine majesty until the end of the Sabbath or festival. The souls of the righteous, according to the Jewish Rabbis, do not ascent to the upper paradise immediately after they have left their body, but they are represented as undergoing a pervious kind of novitiate in the lower paradise, which is situated half way between this corporal world and the upper Heaven. Mohammadeans believe in a Heaven prepared for the blessed among the faithful; a place for those who are true to their religion and followers of the holy prophet Mohammed. Here, they shall spend eternity and shall join him in perpetual light and all heavenly pleasures, always beautiful, in their full strength and vigour, brighter than the sun, and thought worthy to see the face of the Most High God, and to adore him. They hold that there are eight Heavens of varying degrees. We have looked at varying traditions in the belief of Heaven and now shall look at the belief in Hell. Both in the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures there are two words, Sheol and Hades which are sometimes translated into hell but which denote the world of departed spirits in general; while two other words Tartaros and Gehenna, signify the place of eternal punishment reserved for the unrighteous and wicked after death. The Amenti of ancient Egyptians, the Patala of the Hindus and the Orcus of the Romans, refer to a future state; but the doctrine of a future punishment is found embodied in all religious systems whether Christian, Heathen, Jewish or Mohammedean. Hell is believed to be a place of eternal torment, a bottomless pit, a worm that never dies, the fire that shall never be quenched. The Jewish Rabbis believe in an upper and lower hell. Gehennon, to which the Talmud adds seven other names, is said to be applied to seven mansions into which hell is divided. Many Jewish people believe in hell, not as an eternal dwelling-place of the wicked, but, to the Israelites at least, as a place of temporary purgatorial punishment. It is believed that the very wicked shall be eternally annihilated. The Mohammedeans, like the Jews, divide Hell which they call Gehennon, into seven portions, but they are not totally agreed as to the inhabitants of these districts. The most common opinion is that Gehennon, is destined for those worshippers of the true God who have not acted up to the principles of the faith which they have professed; the second division, called Lodha, is for the Christians; the third named Hothama, is for Jews; the fourth, denominated Sair, is destined for the Sabeans; the fifth, called Sacar, is for Magicians or Geubres; the sixty names Gehim, will received Pagans and idolaters, whilst the seventh, the most severe place of punishment within the lowest depths of the abyss, is named Hooviat, and reserved for the hypocritical professors of religion. The Hindus believe in a graduated scale of future punishments as well rewards; the less wicked being sunk into a lower position in the next birth (reincarnation), the more wicked being sent down to one or other of the innumerable Hells, to reappear, however, on earth, in mineral, animal, and vegetable forms before they rise to the human, the most wicked of all beings doomed to experience the misery and woe and perdition until the time of the dissolution of all things. The Buddhist tradition has a system of eight principal narakas, or places of torment, all of them situated in the interior of the earth and so enclosed it makes it impossible for escape. Gnostics, (gnosis, knowledge), the general name applied to various classes of pagans or heretics, arose in the early period of the Christian Church. They derived from the school of philosophy and denoted a higher and esoteric science which was designed to express the superiority of their doctrines to those of the Pagans and Jews. The systems of Gnosticism were various, all of them referable to two fixed historical centres, Syria and Egypt. Hence, there was a marked difference between the Syrian and the Alexandrian Gnosis, the former being characterized by a predominance of Dualism, the latter by a predominance of Pantheism. It is impossible to even cursorily examine Gnosticism in the diversified aspect which is assumes, without being at almost every point reminded of the old religious systems of Asia, Buddhism, Parsiam and Brahmanism. Gnostics believed in intuitions and symbols rather than conceptions. In the eye of the Gnostic everything became hyposaterized, which, to the Western thinker existed only as a conception. The foundation of most of the Gnostic systems lies in the idea of two different and opposite worlds, the one region of light, the other the region of darkness; one a region of purity and the other of sin; a superior world and an inferior world. The primal source of being was the Bythos (like the Brahm) of Hinduism in which was an invisible, incomprehensible being, enjoying perfect quiescence and from whom all emanations proceeded. Following their line of thought, they alleged the God or Jehovah of the Jews to be Demiurge, and the law they promulgated in the Old Testament to be inferior and imperfect whereas, the law which Christ promulgated in The New Testament was the expression of the mind of the Bythos or Unknown Father. Most Gnostics reportedly believed that salvation rested merely on knowledge; and that a man who possessed knowledge needed no more. The realisation of human mortality lives with each and every human being and ghost stories, spirits and hauntings have been a part of our history, handed down from generation to generation. We are taught about spirits, Witches, Angels, Demons, Gods and Goddesses and the paranormal world is rich in psychics, supernatural events, divination and with people who have real experiences with the paranormal such as out of body experiences, direct interaction with ghostly phenomena and near death experiences. Sceptics cannot ignore or dismiss paranormal occurrences just as Science cannot explain the unexpected e.g., apparitions, ghosts, hauntings, orbs or the supernatural. To sum up, no matter what our personal faith, belief, religions, culture or race, it is up to you whether you believe that the evidence is strong enough to justify your belief in paranormal, the supernatural and an afterlife. Near death experiences (NDE), the age-old debate, have been occurring for centuries. In the year 360 BC, Plato writes about a soldier named Er who recalled his NDE. Near death experiences are quite common and have been recorded through history. You may have heard someone who nearly died saying that they experienced their whole life flashing right before their eyes. NDEs have been a part of mankinds existence for thousands of years, as some ancient civilizations have recorded these supernatural encounters. With this history, many different explanations have come as to what could be the cause, or if the afterlife is real. Millions of cases are documented worldwide of NDEs, or near-death experiences. As they are such a common occurrence, Scientists have conducted research into thousands, if not millions, of cases. During the past 30 years, near-death experiences have been the focus of intense Scientific studies at Universities and Medical Centres around the world and they can no longer dismiss this phenomenon as hallucinations, chemical changes in the brain just prior to death, or as a pharmacologically induced experience. Science has questioned and studied NDEs experiences and one thing agreed on by all those involved in research is that near death experiences really do exist. No two near death experiences are the same; they are as unique and as individual as the person who goes through this experience. People who suffer severe trauma, clinical death, or those who nearly die, have reported similar traits during their near-death experience and many believe it to be very real and have significantly changed the views on life, spirituality and particularly their views on death. Some common experiences do occur however, not all NDEs follow a pattern. Common traits that have been widely documented with NDE include: Feelings of Peace and Terror: These feelings may include acceptance of death, total calmness, feelings of peace, being emotional and physically comforted. The person sees a bright light filling the room which they interpret as Heaven or God. Then there are those cases documented of people who do not have a feeling of peace, did not meet with family or friendly spirits. Rather, they experienced terror as while being attacked and upset by demons. (OBE): Out-of-body Experiences: The person feels that they have left their physical body. They observe from above, often describing the sight of doctors working on him. In some cases, the subjects spirit then flies out of the room, into the sky and sometimes into space. We have all heard stories about someone on the verge of death seeing a bright light at the end of a long tunnel, revealing that they have entered another dimension or realm, seeing spiritual entities and deceased family, friends and loved ones. The persons spirit may take a bit of time to look around and then notice a bright light. The light may start out to be small and then become larger as the spirit of the person moves toward it. In some cases there is not a tunnel, but a very bright light that fills the room. The light is brighter than anything the person has ever experienced on Earth, but they are not bothered by the it. General feelings that people experience include euphoria and report floating feelings and beautiful visions of scenic places. The majority of people who experience near-death say they feel very happy with a wonderful sense of calm and belonging. Another Realm or Dimension: Other people that experience NDEs say that they are led to another realm, most have positive experiences however, a few have reported a negative experience in which they get a feeling of loss of control and falling into a deep bottomless chasm. Near death experiences moves the person beyond this natural world and into worlds unseen, usually commencing with a tunnel of light which they are compelled to enter. This bright light pulls them into another realm and, as they leave this world behind, they experience sightings of spirits, family and their departed friends. Lastly, they experience a life review, where one sees their entire earthly life in fast forward. Once on the other side, they have reported being surrounded by entities, some of them they knew were dead and others who are there to talk to them. Some report being told certain things and are asked to go back to their bodies. The most common report for survivors of outer body experience(OBE) is that people feel they have been given a glimpse into Heaven as they encounter beings of light, or other representations of spiritual entities. Spiritual Beings and Entities: When a person experiences NDE most report that the feeling surrounding the spiritual beings and entities are pleasurable, and they feel completely disassociated with their physical body, have the ability to see through walls and they relate stories about what was happening outside the room where their physical body was pronounced clinically dead. Some report the transcendental or mystical elements emit a sense of complete peace and contentment and, on their return after communication with the spirits or entities, it has been reported by many people and they describe a male voice telling them that it is not their time and to go back to their earthly physical body. Returning to the Physical Body: On returning to their physical body, in most cases, they have a sense of being reborn, seeking to learn more about themselves, are stronger, self confident and pursue a life of truth with heightened appreciation and contentment. The typical near-death survivor emerges from their experience determined to live life to the fullest and most do not fear death. Negative NDE Experiences: Unfortunately, for others, the experience may not be a positive one. Some people have said they have increased fear, suffer from depression, and focus more on death. However, thankfully, it is a very small percentage that experience negativity after recovering from their NDE. Many survivors of NDE struggle with a fear of mental illness, ridicule and fear of rejection. Problems associated with negative experiences of NDE include depression, isolation, with a difficulty in explaining their experience to their family or to the medical profession and angry due to their difficulty after this experience to return to their previous beliefs. Those who experience a negative NDE can become very distressed, retreat into themselves, take years to adjust a near-death experience, believe that their experience was a hallucination rather than a real experience, fear to seek help or counselling and may feel that they have lost control over their minds. For these people, their mental stability is challenged as is their belief systems. The effects of those who experience negative NDE are often life-altering. No Scientific explanation to date can account or explain all of the aspects of near death experiences, why they happen or what are the causes and effects. NDEs follow a broad general pattern that crosses cultures; they remain in memory for decades as being realer than real. Scientists have delved into various forms of studies and a couple of examples include; lack of oxygen is not a factor in all NDEs, nor is the presence of drugs or medication responsible. Sceptics have a big problem with the belief in Near Death Experience because it is impossible to define the line between when life and death occurs. Definitions of death can vary from continent to continent and from culture to culture e.g.; what makes a person?, Define the soul or spirit in a person? and as none of this can be proved scientifically. However, this does not discount the real fact that many sincere and honest people have near-death experiences and that Scientists and Medical Practitioners have investigated the phenomena with no solid result or evidence to refute their experiences.